On the campaign against the Egyptian Mamluks by Temur Lang in 1400-1401

Abstract

The end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century are considered a very difficult period in the Middle East region, when a number of powerful Islamic states tried to gain hege­mony.  During this period, the campaigns of Temur-Leng (1370-1405) caused great damage to the Middle East, including the Mamluks of Egypt. The history of Temur-Leng's campaigns against the Mamluks has not been studied in detail in Georgian historiography. 

We find information translated into Georgian in the work of the Armenian historian Tovma Metsofets (1378-1446) – „History of Temur-Leng and his descendants“ (Thomas of Metsoph. 1987)- and in the work of the 17th century Georgian historian Parsadan Gorgij­anidze - "Life of Georgia" (Parsadan Gorgijanidze. 2022: 251-253).  We also get information about this matter through historians of non-Eastern origin - Persian and Arab.  Among the Persian historians, the work Zafar nama ("The Book of Victory") (Nizam ad-Din Shami, 1937: 230-237) by Nizam ad-Din Shami, a historian of the court of Temur, created before Temur's death in 1405, and Zafername („The Book of Victory“)  by Sharaf ad-Din Ali 'al-Yazd, published in 1424, are not­able (Şerrfeddin Ali Yezdi, 2019).  As for Arab historians: Kalkashandi (1355-1418), Makriz (1364-1442), Ibn Qadi Shuhba (1377-1448), Ibn Hajar 'al-Askalan (1372/73 - 1449), Ibn Arabshah (1389-1450),  In the works of 'Al-Ain (1451), Ibn Taghri Berdi (1411-1469), As-Sakhavi (1497) and Ibn Yas (1524) there are reports about Temur's campaigns against the Mamluks in Syria (A New Latin Source on Tamerlane's Conquest of Damascus (1400/1401), 1956: 202).  Arab historians are evidently familiar with and share the accounts of Nizam ad-Din Sham and Sharaf ad-Din Ali 'al-Yazd regarding the capture of Damascus.  But unlike the Persian historians, and because of their own background, they refer to Temur-Leng as „the tyrant“ and „the scourge of the earth“. (A New Latin Source on Tamerlane's Conquest of Damascus (1400/1401), 1956: 203).

More complete and detailed information can be found in the accounts of Bertrand de Mignanelli, an Italian merchant living in Damascus, who personally knew the Mamluk Sultan Barquq (Sultan 1382–1389 and 1390–1399) and spoke Arabic well (D. Donald Sidney Richards; Chase F. Robinson, 2003: 258).  After Bertrand's return to Italy (1416), he publishes his work in Latin – „The Life of Temur-Leng“ („Vita Tamerlani“), which was translated into English, studied with notes and comments by Walter J.  Fishel. Also noteworthy is the account of one of the Italian merchants, Emanuele Piloto (1371- ca. 1441), whose trading area extended to the Eastern Mediterranean region.  He spent almost twenty-two years in Mamluk Egypt, during which time he had to meet with Sultan Faraj several times and witnessed Temur's campaign in Syria (E. Piloti, 1950: 119-121).  By studying and analyzing the literature listed above, we tried to provide information about the exact date of Temur-Leng's raids on the Mamluk Sultanate and the events that took place.

On June 20, 1399, Mamluk Sultan Saif ad-Din Barquq (1390-1399) died.  When Temur-Leng, who was in India, heard this news, he immediately decided to march to Syria (A New Latin Source on Tamerlane's Conquest of Damascus (1400/1401), 1956: 201-202).  Before sacking the Syrian cities, Timur first sent an ambassador to Damascus, who was executed by the governor of Damascus, Sudun, appointed by the new Mamluk Sultan - Nasir ad-Din Faraj (1399-1405 /1405-1412)(https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Aleppo-1400) . Mamluk rule failed to properly assess Lang's forces.  This time they had to deal with a much stronger and more ruthless enemy than in the battles with Ayun Jalut in 1260 or Albistan in 1277.

In 1400, Lang started a war with the Mamluk sultan and sent his own army to Syria, who captured Aleppo (Hallab) in November and carried out a brutal massacre there, erecting towers of 20,000 skulls near the city walls (https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Aleppo-1400).  Lang's plans did not include Aleppo alone, after subd­uing the latter, his cavalry moved south and conquered Hama, Homs, Baalbek (ucker, Spencer C. 2010: 140), Sivas, Malatya (in September 1400) and made his way to Damascus (A New Latin Source on Tamerlane's Conquest of Damascus (1400/1401), 1956: 209).

After the victory over Damascus, Temur's army besieged the city, which is why the defeated sultan sent the great historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) as an ambassador from Cairo to the enemy's camp, who conducted unsuccessful peace negotiations with the enemy. His records, like Mignanelli's, are most noteworthy because, unlike other historians of the period, Khaldun was an eyewitness to the events unfolding there.  He is therefore specially qualified to convey the picture of the siege and conquest of Damascus (A New Latin Source on Tamerlane's Conquest of Damascus (1400/ 1401), 1956: 203).

If we rely on the report of Farsadan, which we quoted above, in the winter of 1401, Lang is in Baghdad and from there he plans to march to western Georgia in order to subjugate the fortress of Alinji, which is in the hands of the Georgians (Parsadan Gorgijanidze, 2022: 253).  He moves from Baghdad to Tabriz, where he rests his army for four months before the campaign and enters Georgia by spring, which is confirmed by Nizam ad-Din Shami.

Based on the sources and materials provided in the work, it is possible to draw the following chronological conclusion:

Temur Lang's attack against the Mamluks, the subjugation of the city of Aleppo, as well as the battle with the city of Damascus and the conquest of the latter were carried out in the fall and early winter of 1400;

Temur's campaign against the Mamluks and the big battles between them took place mainly in the territory of Syria, but the victory over Damascus pushed Temur's army to the south as well, as a result of which he took Jerusalem by 1400 and went from there to bless the holy cities of Mecca and Medina in 1401.